The post-Civil Rights and post-Black Power era brought the rise of cultural waves such as the Black Arts Movement and Black is Beautiful cultural movements, which inspired innovative forms of expression, that examined Black identity through music (traditional and new), poetry, arts, and fashion. The Black Arts Movement explored cultural values and themes in established Black art forms and encouraged collaboration with like-minded artists to create more expressions that reflected life as Black people. At the same time, the Black is Beautiful movement sought to reframe Blackness from previous racist notions by taking pride in the Black identity (features, culture, and experiences). As these ideas spread, college campuses created spaces that allowed the Black community to express themselves through various mediums, and many members of the University of Maryland College Park (UMD) campus community connected with the Black is Beautiful and Black Arts movements as they created, expressed, and took pride in their community.
Space
In 1896, Plessy v Fergurson set the tone for how resources in the United States should be shared…or not. This infamous “separate but equal case” wrote segregation into law, making it hard for African Americans to have access to resources that could advance their communities. Regardless, African Americans could create their own rich culture with limited resources through creative means. Many of America’s greatest musical artists had their foundations in worship music traditions that were unique to the Black experience in the United States. Black churches and mosques served as spaces to hear messages of liberation and music that empowered the spirits of those who fought against oppression during the Civil Rights and Black Power movements.
The 1970s was the decade when integration became more commonplace after landmark cases and changes in legislation, such as Brown v Board of Education (1952–1954) and the Civil Rights Act (1964). This did not mean Black people in America were able to freely access all spaces. Racist attacks still happened frequently on Black communities, so having a space that was for and by Black people was necessary.
Space is a valuable resource to have; it provides qualities like a place to live, study, and foster community. Having a defined space can also encourage creative activities such as concerts, plays, and viewing art, so it is no surprise that the Black community at UMD needed a place to discuss, plan, and have programs that appreciated Black music, culture, and minds. In order to organize and relate with each other, the Black students, staff, and faculty needed a place to feel safe and represented as many people who were vocal about America’s racism and its ills were assassinated. Black staff and faculty often met off campus in the surrounding Black communities of Berwyn and Lakeland to discuss ways to better improve their work conditions since there was no space to talk or express their frustrations on campus. Even in the 70s, it was still risky to have such conversations freely on campus without threats to their lives and livelihoods.1
Different institutions around the country created cultural centers and one of those institutions at UMD was the Intensive Educational Development Program (IED), a state-funded organization that sought to remedy the decline in Black student enrollment by overseeing activities and programs that catered to Black students and faculty.2 UMD sometimes paid Black students not to attend their institution after being admitted in the 70s.3 One of the programs the IED oversaw was the Nyumburu Cultural Center. The Nyumburu Cultural Center was created in 1971 as a space for “Black social, cultural and intellectual interaction,” and therefore served as an expression of the Black is Beautiful movement and Black Arts Movement, which both called for exploring Black culture.4 A companion to programs such as Upward Bound, Nyumburu served as a place where Black expression was preserved and practiced in a predominantly white campus with a curriculum that catered to white students.
Nyumburu was originally situated somewhere South of the current campus in the Cultural Center building (CC) building (1971-1976), two trailers merged to create a space, and the next location was on the 3rd floor of the South Campus Dining Hall (1976-1996). In 1996, Nyumburu Cultural Center moved to its permanent location next to the Adele Stamp Student Union building. Having a dedicated building that housed different Black-run organizations and activities made members of the Black community feel less displaced, compared to a dining hall or a temporary and movable trailer. Nyumburu’s permanent existence can be interpreted as a symbol of triumph and resilience in a place that was hostile to members of its student body, staff, and faculty.
It is important to note that space is not only limited to physical locations but can apply to space in media such as newspapers and radio stations. The Black Student Union’s (BSU) official newspaper, The Black Explosion, founded c. 1970, provided spaces for Black students to deliberate, communicate, and share their ideas and histories on identity, culture, and current affairs (local and international) with each other. Each issue came with a poetry section that allowed students to explore themes such as love, identity, and politics. Devastatingly, the Black Explosion office was vandalized in October 1975. This event did not deter the students from continuing to use their voices and talents to express their truths as this was reported in the same newspaper. Carving out a space for and by the Black community gave its members agency and power to make their own choices and decisions on the UMD campus.5
Expression
Due to America’s racist foundations, oppression was perpetually justified by constructing negative stereotypes around non-white communities. The Black community endured narratives that painted them as lazy, unambitious, and inferior. These negative images were pushed by the media—including popular music—to maintain racist power structures by influencing the way Black people were perceived in larger society. Common stereotypes depicted caricatures of Black people embodying negative tropes, for example:
- Jezebel: depicted Black women as hypersexual, hyper fertile and promiscuous
- Mammy: depicted an older Black woman as comfortable with subordination
- Sambo: depicted a happy, docile enslaved Black man who was also savage, primitive, and uncivilized person
- other caricatures spread through blackface minstrelsy
The purpose of these stereotypes was to “Other”, and in turn, dehumanize the Black community.6
Pushing such harmful ideas also had a negative impact on the Black community internally, hence the need for Black-led movements. These movements gained prominence and combatted stereotypes as they influenced Black college students and intellectuals to think deeply about their implications, and how to redefine them for the benefit of the community.7
Nikki Giovanni, a Black Arts Movement poet, performed at UMD’s Colony ballroom in 1973. Her 1971 album Like a Ripple on a Pond, recorded with the New York Community Choir, opens with the track “Conversation,” which also appeared on the WMUC radio playlist in 1973 (UMD’s radio station).8“Conversation” is an upbeat gospel call and response with a spoken word section that is a vignette of Nikki Giovanni’s encounter with an elderly Black woman. The song is a lively rendition of the classic gospel hymn, “How I Got Over,” written in 1951 by Clara Ward. The song was written after Ward, her mother, sister, and singing group experienced a racial attack while traveling to Atlanta. “Conversation” starts with a brief instrumental then the chorus:
Choir: Over, over, soul look back and wonder, I got over!
Lead: The tallest tree, in paradise (call it)/the crimson tall, in the tree of life (oh)
Choir: Soul look back and wonder, I got over
Lead: I’ve been ‘bused/And I’ve been scorned, yeah/I’ve been talked about, so all you want
Choir: Soul look back and wonder, I got over!9
The ensemble is led by a soulful voice with the choir responding to the lead’s call. The accompanying instruments on the track include human clapping, drums, bass guitar, piano keys, and the tambourine–all of which are regularly used in Black church gatherings, therefore making this an embodiment of Black musical heritage.10 Call and response is also a feature of many Black genres with roots in West Africa. It encourages participants to be the audience and creators at the same time. The choir repeating the same phrase after the lead is reminiscent of prayers and affirmations as if the choir is affirming the message of rising above challenges, therefore mirroring the story of Black America overcoming the constant challenges they still face. The spoken word section of the song follows a young Nikki Giovanni’s conversation with a Black elder about her experiences as several events passed her in America ranging from the space race to desegregation:
The old days done gone, and I say goodbye. Peoples be going to the moon and all. Ain’t that wonderful? To the moon.
And I said I see stars all the time. Aretha Franklin and Sly were at Madison Square Garden recently.What you doin’ here? she asked.
I’m a poet, I said.
Well, that ain’t no reason to be uppity.And the sun beat down on my head while a dragonfly admonished my flippancy.
But a blue and yellow butterfly sat on my knee.I looked her square in the eye.
I ain’t gonna tell you, she said and turned her head.
Ain’t gonna tell me what? I asked.
What you asking me? You gotta live to be 79 before you could understand anyhow.
Now YOU being uppity, I said.
Yea, but I earned it, she replied.And shifting her watch, she clapped her hands together and smiled.
You’ve been here before.
And I said, yes ma’am, but would you tell me just one thing?
What did I learn?
And she spat out her juice.
Honey, if you don’t know, how can I?
I wanted to argue but the sun was too hot and the sky too lazy, and God, he just sighed.11
The exchange is a witty exchange of two women in different stages of their lives; one talking about times long gone and, the other young and filled with youthful exuberance. Both women talk about the progress in different ways with each woman describing each other as “uppity” as they share their perspectives in conversation. Gospel music gave people a sense of understanding and comfort through personal and collective struggles.12An event such as Giovanni’s concert at UMD would have encouraged and inspired Black students, faculty, and staff to look back at how far they have come and also appreciate the work the community has done collectively toward progress.
Stevie Wonder’s 1973 concert at UMD, when he performed with the Mandrills, the Persuasions, and Earth Wind and Fire is another instance at the UMD campus where multiple forms of Black expression could be seen in how the event was communicated and recorded. Looking at the official concert flier, the first feature that sticks out is the magenta and Black color scheme. Wonder’s silhouette contrasts the sharp background, drawing attention to his profile. In this poster, he wears his signature sunglasses and an afro inspired by the values of the Black is Beautiful movement.
An Arcus/Dimension newspaper article notes Stevie Wonder wearing the same outfit worn on his 1972 album cover (Talking Book) at this concert but without the cornrows. There were several moments in the concert where the performing artists referenced different sounds with Black and Afro-roots inspired by the cultural movements; audiences would have heard Earth Wind and Fire’s use of a kalimba (Shona thumb piano), conga drums, Afro-Latin rhythms, and Mandrill’s Latin and rock references in the sets. Wonder’s band, Wonder & Co, also featured three Black female vocalists—Lonnie Groves, Shirley Brewer, and Lois Harvin—who sang classic soul songs.13The set list for UMD’s concert would have most likely included some of these songs: The Persuasions: “Working on the Chain Gang,” Earth, Wind, and Fire: “Kalimba Story,” Mandrill: “Fencewalk,” and Stevie Wonder and Co: “Superstition.” These songs had deep significance within the Black community and even played on WMUC, UMD’s campus radio station.14
This event was a medley of different sounds and aesthetics informed by love, acceptance, and pride in Blackness. Natural styles like kinky-coily hair, traditional African hairstyles, African- and Black American-inspired clothing, and Black music traditions such as soul, jazz, blues, and barbershop were embraced.
“There were as many Superflies as there [were] Relics of the True Cross and mode of dress ranged from Ghetto Jungle Fighter to Hustler High Style.”15
These details are important to note as Black people have had to conform to standards that did not make room for the expression of their identity and culture. To quote Pat Wheeler, the founder of the Black Explosion:
“It was a Black happening, the likes of which Cole Field House had never seen before”16
The variety of expression meant that there was more representation of different types of Black people and this was done by holding space for their identity. Holding space to celebrate Black culture allowed for multiple Black experiences to be talked about and explored. Thus, Blackness visibly stopped being a monolith on a larger scale at this point in time and became publicly validated as an identity to be proud of.
Community
Space and expression are factors that have contributed to the longevity and presence of the Black community at UMD. Black History Week was introduced to the University of Maryland Community in 1972. Titled “Black Thoughts and Black Deeds,” this event was a 6-day long program organized by Black students, staff, and faculty that focused on “the contributions of Black artists, musicians, and scholars to our national culture and upon the problems encountered by Black [people] in our society.” The event had a variety of exhibits, lectures, and dramatic productions that gave a glimpse of Black culture through different modes. The purpose of the event was to educate and offer interested learners an opportunity to “gain increased appreciation and respect for racial and ethnic differences” and “the elimination and prevention of the campus.”17 “Black Thoughts and Black Deeds” used various mediums to explore issues that were both politically and culturally relevant to the Black community:
- Assassination of liberation leaders: the life and death of Fred Hampton, the deputy chairman of the Black Panther party portrayed through cinema
- Poem recitations and panel discussions with artists from the Black Arts Movement such as Sonia X (Sanchez) and Amiri Baraka
- Guerrilla Movements in Africa
- Music and dance presentations from different Black traditions (Gospel, Blues, Jazz etc.)
- Receptions and,
- other activities that deep-dived into current affairs18
In c.1970, the University did not provide the BSU and Black led organizations on campus with enough funding, therefore cutting off Black students from opportunities. So, students had to get creative with raising funds. Daniel Kitt, BSU President from 1970–1971, and members of the BSU Executive Board partnered with Dynamic Attractions, a subsidiary of the National Business Service Institute, to organize a scholarship drive by hosting concerts of popular musicians. Robert Blow, president of Dynamic Attractions wrote to Daniel Kitt:
“After our conversation concerning the plight of the [BSU] to raise funds for your scholarship fund. We have proposed to give a show in Cole Field House on October 17 1971…It is my opinion that in order for you to be successful in your drive, any group that performs on the campus should leave a substantial amount of earnings on campus. Because without the scholarship fund, many talented [Black] students would not be able to attend the University of Maryland.”19
Popular musicians such as Ike and Tina Turner, Stevie Wonder, Earth, Fire and Wire, Patti Labelle, Jackson 5, Gladys Nights and the Pips, and many more contributed to the scholarship drive. These concerts in Maryland were iconic and were great events to foster community amongst the Black population on and off campus.
The BSU, under the guidance of Black faculty members, also advocated for Black students by organizing rallies and programs to ensure their “financial, academic, cultural and psychological needs,” safety, and protested against all forms of discrimination both locally and internationally. They also used the arts to educate and commune with nearby Black communities. Kenneth Hillard, the 1971–1972 BSU President, wrote to then Vice Chancellor Charles E. Bishop, in a letter after the 1972 Black student rally against racism :
“Our programs have reached out into the Lakeland and District communities through our tutorial and arts and crafts projects, participation in community organizations, and our contributions to the Washington Area Black College Coalition. By educating our population through our cultural programs, we are making this university relevant to Black students. A very important function that we have begun to assume is providing security for Black Students.”20
Students were able to meet their academic and financial needs through the scholarship fund, and their cultural and psychological needs by participating through BSU organized concerts. These advocacy and organization efforts opened more opportunities to successfully build and strengthen community ties between Black community members at UMD and Black communities in the neighboring areas.
Bibliography
Primary Sources
Blow, Robert, Dynamic Attractions President, letter to BSU President Daniel Kitt. September 17, 1971. Box 5, Folder 5: Black Student Union, September 1970– June 1973. Series 3: UMCP Offices and Non-Academic Departments, 1967–1979. Office of the Chancellor Records. Special Collections and University Archives, Hornbake Library, University of Maryland Libraries.
Brooks Jr., Glenwood C., Director of the Cultural Study Report. Report to the Chancellor’s Commission on Minority Students, Summary of Remark. December 11, 1972. Box 10, Folder 8: Minority Student Education, Counsellor’s Commission in November 1972–June 1975. Series 1: Office of the Chancellor, 1970–1978. Office of the Chancellor Records. Special Collections and University Archives, Hornbake Library, University of Maryland Libraries.
Carswell, Anne Reese, Associate Director of Nyumburu Cultural Center. Interview by Josephine Ashley-Osuzoka and Tolulope Ajenifuja, October 3, 2024, College Park, Maryland.
Dolan, Mike.“Stevie Wonder and 18,000 Friends.” Arcus/Dimension. March 30, 1973. Box 10, Folder 10. Series 1: Administrative Records, 1969–2010 and undated. Records of Student Entertainment Events. Special Collections and University Archives, Hornbake Library, University of Maryland, College Park.
First Black History Week Address c.1972. Box 5, Folder 5: Black Student Union, September 1970–June 1973. Series 3: UMCP Offices and Non-Academic Departments, 1967–1979. Office of the Chancellor Records. Special Collections and University Archives, Hornbake Library, University of Maryland Libraries.
Giovanni, Nikki. “Conversation.” Track 1 on Like a Ripple in a Pond. Niktom NK 4200, 1973. Nikki Giovanni-Topic, posted October 28, 2021. Audio recording. https://youtu.be/if1OFlx0O18?feature=shared
Kenneth Hillard to Vice Chancellor Dr. Bishop on December 5, 1972. Box 5, Folder 5: Black Student Union, September 1970- June 1973. Series 3: UMCP offices and non-academic Departments, 1967-1979. Office of the Chancellor Records. Special Collections and University Archives, Hornbake Library, University of Maryland Libraries.
Nyumburu Cultural Center, “Nyumburu Cultural Center at 50.” October 23, 2021, Nyumburu Cultural Center, University of Maryland, College Park
“Nyumburu Cultural Center” Nyumburu Cultural Center, Office of Inclusion and Diversity, University of Maryland, accessed December 4, 2024, https://nyumburu.umd.edu/.
Official First Black History Week Program c.1972. Box 5, Folder 5: Black Student Union, September 1970–June 1973. Series 3: UMCP Offices and Non-Academic Departments, 1967–1979. Office of the Chancellor Records. Special Collections and University Archives, Hornbake Library, University of Maryland Libraries.
Pat Wheeler et. al. “BSU Presents Stevie Wonder in Concert.” Black Explosion. April 16, 1973. Digital Collections, University of Maryland Libraries https://digital.lib.umd.edu/result/id/076ddf30-59c6-4d8f-b39b-8fa61f4f94b9?relpath=pcdm&query=.
Rae Bernard and Suzette Dunnigan. “Announcements.” Black Explosion. October 8, 1975. Digital Collections, University of Maryland Libraries.
Various Weeks on WMUC playlists. Box 3, Folder 4: Playlists, 1972–1974. Series 1: Administrative Records, 1948–2011. WMUC Records. Special Collections and University Archives, Hornbake Library, University of Maryland Libraries.
Week of October 14, 1973 WMUC playlist. Box 3, Folder 4: Playlists, 1972–1974. Series 1: Administrative Records, 1948–2011. WMUC Records. Special Collections and University Archives, Hornbake Library, University of Maryland Libraries.
Scholarly Sources
Hill Collins, Patricia. Black Feminist Thought: Knowledge, Consciousness, and the Politics of Empowerment. 2nd ed. Routledge, 2002.
Marx, Karl. Capital: A Critique of Political Economy. Translated by Ben Fowkes. Alfred A. Knopf, 1976.
Turino, Thomas. “Peircean Thought As Core Theory For A Phenomenological Ethnomusicology.” Ethnomusicology 58, no. 2 (2014): 185–221.
Werner, Craig Hansen. A Change Is Gonna Come: Music, Race, and the Soul of America. Plume Books, 1998.
Winans, Robert B. “Black Instrumental Music Traditions in the Ex-Slave Narratives.” Black Music Research Journal 10, no. 1 (1990): 43–53. https://doi.org/10.2307/779531.